Memoirs of a Geshia and Andrea Del Sarto Essay Example for Free

Memoirs of a Geshia and Andrea Del Sarto Essay The film adaptation of Memoirs of a Geshia faithfully depict the context in which it was taken. Woman are portaryed strong feminists in todays society. Sayuris blue eyes symbolise the Japanese culture, as the element of water is often associated with adoption and change, as it can be both a relaxing and a desructive force. Sayuris growth from a young servant to one of the most sought after geshia in her district water is a good guard against fire. Sayuri is portrayed as being a worthy protective for the equally formidable element of fire which can be associated with the beautiful but highly dangerous Hutsumomo. Both woman of fire and the girl of water illustrate the dominance and power of women in todays society. as both characters were associated with the element of earth, emphasising the power of women in todays society as they have gained power over time. On the other hand, in Andrea del Sarto, Browning rejects the tendency rejects the tendancy of romantics to project all their desires onto a female object . His dramatic monolouge in the poem is a variation on the theme of men processing women as objects, You beatiful Lucrezia that are mine! reveals the artists desire to assert his male dominance over her female passivity. Browning showcases the role of women during the Victorian era and the time as men only refer to them as objects as they were only desired by men for their perfect eyes perfect mouth over time women have become more powerful as portrayed in Memoirs of a Geshia as the society has recognised and potential of women.

Applications of Semiconductor lasers

Applications of Semiconductor lasers Abstract- Semiconductor lasers have the potential to meet the demands of next generation high speed optical network applications and also have great impact on various other technology domains. Its low cost, easy wavelength tune ability, low power consumption and pure output make it ideal for optical communication applications. This paper is a review of the merits, demerits, current applications, commercial availability and future directions of semiconductor lasers in optical communication. Comparative analysis of these semiconductor lasers with respect to various parameters also been conducted. Keywords: Semiconductor lasers, Fabry-Perot laser, Distributed feedback (DFB) laser, External Cavity Diode Lasers (ECDL), Multi Quantum Well (MQW) laser, Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Lasers (VCSEL) i.Introduction The semiconductor lasers were discovered in 1962 by Robert Hall and his team members [1, 2]. With the advent of this technology patents and articles started to publish on this technology but at that time this technology was not mature enough to realize the dreams of the scientists, engineers and physicist. But with advancement in the field and the enabling technologies soon made it possible to produce inexpensive commercially available semiconductor laser. The invention of semiconductor lasers not only revolutionizes the optical communication but it has many applications in other domains also. Semiconductor lasers are one of the popular optical communication light source for data transmission. They are supposed to be the laser of the future, because of their compactness in size, easy integration, more output power, optical pumps for solid-state lasers (primary light source i.e laser diode pumps another solid state lasers) and their rapid improvement. Semiconductor lasers are essentially diodes which produces coherent light through the process of stimulated emission. They uses semiconductor as a gain medium. The gain medium is pumped by an external source, which is electrical in nature in case of semiconductor lasers [3]. As they are basically p-n junctions, so they are compact and can be fabricated on large scale by the use of advance semiconductor IC technology. Semiconductor lasers are very efficient in converting electrical power into optical power [10]. In section.II basic types of semiconductor lasers are described in terms of their basic working procedure, advantages, disadvantages, commercial availability future directions and applications. Section.III produces the comparison of semiconductor lasers with respect to various parameters and section.IV contains the conclusion. II. Types of semiconductor lasers Following are the basic types of semiconductor lasers Fabry Perot (FP) Lasers Distributed Feedback (DFB) lasers Multi Quantum Well (MQW) laser External Cavity Diode Lasers (ECDL) Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Lasers (VCSEL) A. Fabry-Perot (FP) lasers In FP lasers, mirrors create the right condition for the lasing to occur. Resonate cavity is formed when two mirrors are put in front of each other. The bouncing of light will take place between these two mirrors, the distance between these two mirrors are adjusted in such a way that this distance is the integral multiple of half wavelength, only is such scenario light will reinforce itself. Wavelengths that are not resonant they undergo destructive interference and deflect. One of the two mirrors is fully reflective and the second mirror allows very small amount of light to pass through [4]. Figure.1.a: Fabry Perot Laser conceptual structure, Ref: [4] Figure.1.b: Fabry Perot Laser structure, Ref: www.scholar.lib.vt.edu A.1. Advantages FP laser gives comb of (Amplified Spontaneous Emission) ASE peak uniform in frequency [5]. FP laser can be used for transmission of data with multimode optical fiber [6]. FP laser also have uniform intensity over Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifier (EDFA) [5]. Perfect for optical links where long term power and wavelength stability is required. A.2. Disadvantages High dispersion in high speed and long transmission system because the spectral width can span as much as 5 nm [6]. At 2.5Gbps and higher the wavelength center of FP laser goes out of wavelength tolerance. Not suitable for long distances. With the improvement in VCSELs technology, applications of 1310 nm and 1550 nm applications are moving from FP laser to VCSEL. A.3. Future directions and Applications Increase in bandwidth up to 15 GHz (the running value) by reducing low frequency roll off parasitic effects of bias circuits by injection locking [7]. FP lasers can generate single longitudinal mode laser [8]. FP lasers external optical modulator for optical access network [9]. Spectral width of FP laser allows transmission to distances of 40 Km at 1.7 Gbps.[5] FP offers Corse wavelength division multiplexing (CWDM) with channels at 1.3ÃŽÂ ¼m and 1.5ÃŽÂ ¼m simultaneously on a single fiber [5]. FP lasers offer benefits in LAN that use one wavelength per fiber [6]. FP laser can be used as multi wavelength source of Amplified Spontaneous Emission (ASE) for spectrum sliced [5]. The 1550 nm FP laser can support Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) [6]. A.4. Commercial availability of FP lasers Multiple Application Platform (MAP) FP laser [9] is FP laser source with key features like single mode or multi mode output, internal modulation, LAN extensions for instrumentation (LXI) compliant etc. This device has weight of almost of half kilo gram is capable of operating on different optical fibers such as Flexcorà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢ and SMF-28 [10] with operational temperature range of 10à ¢Ã‚ Ã‚ °C to 40à ¢Ã‚ Ã‚ °C. This product is commercially available. B. Distributed feedback (DFB) lasers In FP laser there is feedback of light from the mirrors, this light feedback can be provided in distributed manner by series of closely spaced mirrors/reflectors (means there is a periodic variation in the width of the cavity). There is a corrugated section in the cavity; the incident light passes through section causes series of reflections. If the corrugation period is the integral multiple of half wavelength (Bragg condition) the resulting transmitted wave will add in phase. This mechanism suppresses other longitudinal modes and allow only single longitudinal mode whose wavelength is equal to twice the corrugation period. [11] Figure.2. DFB laser structure [4] B.1. Advantages DFB lasers provides better wavelength stability than cleaved end face laser [12] The line width of DFB is less than that of reflective end face lasers [12]. Low chirp [13] Better wavelength selectivity. DFB laser is used in high performance system because of its narrow spectral output width [6]. B.2. Disadvantages The amplitude of the standing wave is fixed because of gratings Emitted wavelength near threshold current cant be controlled [14] Wavelength chirp is associated with the spatial burning of the carrier holes. Some values of rare facet phase give unacceptable performance. B.3.Future directions and applications of Distributed feedback (DFB) lasers All optical flip-flop is one of the building block for fast optical packet switching as it temporary stores the header information while the payload is routed to the correct output port. Single distributed feedback (DFB) laser diode based, all optical flip flop can be used to serve this purpose. Experimental results shows that DFB lasers can provide optical memory in an economical way and at the same time shows fast switching of optical packets (as low as 45 ps can be achieved). Using DFB lasers as an all optical flip flop 40 Gbps can be switched. [15] Used in DWDM system where tune ability of signals are required. Used in the sensing of extreme narrow line width of the signal. B.4. Commercial availability of Distributed Feedback laser The production of Quantum dot pure Green laser [16] is possible by using DFB laser technology. DFB laser gives high reliability for optical communication to form quantum dot crystal with a wavelength of 1064nm [16]. There is significant amount of reduction in power consumption for converting 1064nm quantum dot laser from electricity to light by the use of DFB laser. C. Multi Quantum well (MQW) lasers In Quantum well lasers the active region is very narrow which causes quantum confinement to occur. The wavelength which emits is dependent on the width of the active region rather than the band gap. This feature gives shorter wavelength than conventional lasers [17]. Figure.3. Cavity structure of MQW laser [4] C.1. Advantages Enhanced gain due to quantum well structure and gain co-efficient is usually 3 times or more than single layer FP laser [13] Produce shorter oscillation wavelength Smaller linewidth enhancement factor (ÃŽÂ ±), at larger linewidth enhancement factor the laser instability is enhanced [13]. Small optical losses Better confinement of laser actions because of multiple active regions. Low threshold current High modulation speed Low temperature dependency C.2. Disadvantages The internal structure of MQW laser is designed such that it is more susceptible to back reflections. C.3. Future directions and Applications Modulating retro reflector combines optical retro reflector and optical modulator (MQW lasers). Strained quantum well technology can become the core technology for high performance semiconductor device by expanding the flexibility of band engineering [18]. Optical repeaters, as it gives saturated output power to about 3dBm. C.4.Commercial availability of MQW lasers SANYO GaAlAs index guided laser diodes with MQW structure, these are infrared powerful lasers source [19] of maximum power up to 200mW and wavelength range of 782nm to 830nm is commercially available. SONY GaAlAs index guided laser diodes with MQW structure; these are infrared powerful lasers source [19] gives optical power range from 90mW up to 60W. This huge optical output power gives high brightness. D. External Cavity Diode Lasers (ECDL) ECDL can also be used to achieve the single longitudinal mode wavelength. ECDL is a semiconductor based laser with one end of the laser diode has anti reflective coating and laser resonator is completed with collimating mirror and external mirror. As they are tunable lasers so for wavelength selection they use diffraction gratings. End mirror contains collimating lens and diffraction grating. The anti reflective coated end of the diode gets feedback from the diffracted beam. Tuning of the emitted wavelength is done through the rotation of the diffracting grating. There is some more variation for this setup. [11, 20] Figure.4. EDCL setup Ref: www.clu-in.org D.1.Advantages Side mode suppression ratio (SMSR) is better than -40 dB and has narrow intrinsic line width Pulse repetition rate can easily be selected [21] Filter can be inserted for the fixing of emission wavelength in mode locked diode laser [21] etc. D.2. Disadvantages The direction of output beam changes by rotating the diffraction grating which not suitable for many optical communication applications. In fixed direction of the output beam, the zero order reflection of the beam bounced by the mirror is lost. D.3.Future directions and applications Tunable continuous wave THz radiation can be generated by the use of dual mode ECDL from 250 MHz to several THz [22] Without mode hopping wavelength tuning over 40 nm around 1550 nm is expected by new configuration of EDCL with all dielectric thin film Fabry Perot filters. [23] Atomic clock: ECDL is used in the optical system of the atomic clock; it is used for the cooling and the detection of clock transition. [24] Mode locked ECDL are mostly used in optical communication (DWDM) for data transmission. [21] Testing and measurement in optical fiber communication Non-linear frequency conversion. D.4. Commercial availability of ECDL TEC-100 and TEC-120 [25] External cavity diode Littrow laser system gives optical output power up to 200mW and running range (mod-hop free) up to 30GHz. DLX-100 [26] External cavity tunable diode gives output power up to 1W and mod-hop free tuning up to 15GHz. E. Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Lasers (VCSEL) VCSEL achieves single longitudinal mode operation in different manner. The active region is placed between two highly reflective surfaces/mirrors. These two reflective surfaces have alternated high and low refractive index. The reflectivity of the surfaces is between 99.5-99.9% that is why light oscillates perpendicularly through the layers and emits from the top or the bottom of the device. [27] E.1. Advantages It has high wavelength stability It is less sensitive to temperature (can operate reliably up to 80 à ¢Ã‚ Ã‚ °C) Less refrigeration is required for VCSEL as it operation do not emit much heat. It provides high powered per unit area ( up to 1200W/cm2) It emits circular beam as a transmitter which leads to small optical loss. Figure.5. VCSEL structure [4] E.2. Disadvantages Because of high mirror reflectivity in the VCSEL internal structure lowers the optical output power. They emit low output power (in mW) because of their small active medium volume. InP based VCSEL suffers from having low conduction band offset, low conduction band offset means low confinements of electron which results improper temperature stability of active material gain. To produce longer wavelength in VCSEL, mechanism of double fusion is used. This mechanism increases the cost as it is complicated procedure [28]. E.2. Future directions and applications of Vertical External Cavity Surface-Emitting Laser (VECSEL) [20, 32] There is an issue of optical power supply for Si-photonics transceiver which are being developed for high density optical interconnect on parallel processors can ideally solved by VECSEL as the emits in 1330 nm and 1550 nm. [29] High speed modulation up to 25 Gb/sec can be achieved by using VCSEL at low current of 7.4 KA/cm2. [30] Fast modulation frequency (in GHz) made its use in optical fiber communication as transmitter Ideal for local and metro area networks as they produce low output power. Threshold less laser [31] etcà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ E.3. Commercial availability of (VCSEL) VCSEL technology has flourished and gives wide range of products with ultra low noise, narrow line width, high optical output power (up to 1kW) and high speed modulation (speed >5GHz) [27]. For high optical output power up to 1KW, a module for cooling of this system is used and fiber is pigtailed for high brightness VCSEL array. VCSELs are commercially available in blue, green and UV lasers [27]. iii. Comparison of semiconductor lasers In this section DFB, ECDL, MQW and VCSEL are compared with respect to different parameters and their suitability as optical transmitter in different optical networks. Parameters Tuning agent Output power ( in dBm) Tuning speed Modulation speed Lasers DFB Temperature 13 Slow (m-sec) Fast (multi-GHz) MQW Quantum confined stark effect ~7 Fast( Fast(multi-GHz) VCSEL MEMs Optically pumped 6 Electrically pumped -3 Fast(ÃŽÂ ¼-sec) Fast ( few GHz) ECDL Peizo transducer ~13 Slow(m-sec) Slow ( Table.1: Comparison of semiconductor lasers Table.1 shows relative analysis of semiconductor lasers. Each semiconductor laser has got competitive advantage with respect to different parameter. Table.2 gives a comprehensive view of the semiconductor lasers and their application in a specific network type as an optical transmitter. Semiconductor Laser Network type FP laser Short to medium range (Local Metro) Networks DFB Laser Long haul network MWQ Laser Short to medium range (Local Metro) Networks ECDL Long haul network VCSEL Short to medium range (Local Metro) Networks Table.2: Semiconductor lasers with their network type support Lasers Max spectral output width FP 5 nm VCSEL 0.5 nm DFB 0.1 nm Table.3: Spectral width comparison of short range lasers Spectral output width measure the range of the wavelengths produce by a laser. From table.3 it is evident that DFB laser has the narrowest spectral output width, which makes DFB laser the best choice for high performance short range optical transmission systems. iv. Conclusion This paper gives a review on the semiconductor lasers, their working, applications, commercial availability and future directions. Relative analysis of these lasers shows that they have competitive advantage in one or other laser parameters and this analysis also shows that which semiconductor laser is appropriate to which type of optical network. Semiconductor lasers have wide applications in optical fiber communication. Lots of exciting research is going on in this field and there is still room of improvements.

Explain what is implied by the assumption that decision-makers are Essa

Explain what is implied by the assumption that decision-makers are rational? How is the assumption of rationality used in the economic analysis of individual behaviour? In many academic disciplines much is spoken about rationality and rational choices. Economists generally refer to 'rational' choices and that individuals in economic theory are rational. By rational we mean people choose options which they perceive to be the best, given the circumstances they are in. In terms of making rational choices some of the conceivable options for example of going to work would be:  · Actually going to work.  · Staying at home  · Going out shopping  · Buying a house  · Fly to the moon etc. But with these choices we face constraints and it is these constraints that define our 'feasible' options so flying to the moon would not be a feasible option. Therefore the options we can choose from is called the 'feasible set' and it is our preferences i.e. our likes and dislikes and their relative intensity, which determines which feasible option we choose. When we make a choice it generates 'utility' which is a measure of the emotional experience associated with the outcome of a choice so basically the satisfaction from the consumption of a good. We talk about 'total utility' meaning the total satisfaction a person gains from all units of a commodity consumed within a time period. We also use the term 'marginal utility' which is additional satisfaction gained from consuming one extra unit within a time period. There is a general model of rational choice where economists assume that agents such as decision makers will firstly identify a feasible set of options and then assess the expected utility of each option ... ...tility and therefore the amount of meals must decrease to keep the utility constant. Due to the fact that the consumer will prefer more to less the curve must slope downwards. The slope of each curve does get steadily flatter as we move to the right due to the assumption of a diminishing marginal rate of substitution. For example in this case at point A the consumer will sacrifice a lot of films for few meals because he/she has so many films. Whereas point B he/she has less films relative to meals so willing to sacrifice a smaller amount of films for additional meals. However this kind of economic analysis is based on rational behaviour of consumers. It does not take into account people with maybe addictions such as smokers or people under the influence of alcohol or drugs. In economics we assume rational thinking and behaviour will always take place.

Investigating the Communicative Phenomena in Multi-User Dimensions :: Internet Computers Technology MUDs Essays

Investigating the Communicative Phenomena in Multi-User Dimensions CHAPTER 1: Rationale and Literature Review Magnafix says, "Have you figured out the secret entrance to Kahn Draxen's castle?" Newtrik sighs deeply. Newtrik says, "I think so, but I haven't found the stone key yet!" Magnafix grins mischievously. Magnafix gives a stone key to Newtrik. Newtrik smiles happily. Newtrik shakes hands with Magnafix. Newtrik says, "Thanks!" Magnafix grins broadly and says, "No problem..." Newtrik leaves west. Introduction Purpose The purpose of this thesis is to investigate the communicative phenomena to be found in those environments known as Internet MUDs, or Multi-User Dimensions. These text-based virtual realities are presently available to students and faculty at most learning institutions, as well as anyone with a computer and a modem. Though the term "virtual reality" has become connected for many with visions of fancy headgear and million dollar gloves, MUDs require no such hardware. They are, however, a form of virtual reality, "because they construct enduring places, objects, and user identities. These objects have characteristics that define and constrain how users can interact with them," (Holmes & Dishman, 1994, p. 6). Having been created in their most rudimentary form nearly two decades ago, the technology that supports MUD interaction is well developed and has spawned a new variety of communicative environment, one that thousands if not millions of users have found fiercely compelling. Since MUDs are generally restricted to text-based interaction (some support ANSI codes, and the graphical MUDs are gaining popularity), one might expect that the interactions therein are characterized by a lack of regulating feedback, dramaturgical weakness, few status cues, and social anonymity, as Kiesler and her colleagues have suggested (Kiesler, Siegal, & McGuire, 1984). While these characteristics may be readily attributable to the majority of interactions within experiments on computer conferencing and electronic mail, such is not the case for MUDs, as each (there are hundreds) is a rich culture unto itself, as will be shown. This thesis is meant to explore the modalities by which MUD users avoid the drawbacks mentioned above, specifically, how nonverbal communication takes place in a virtual world composed solely of words. Background History of network computing The first computer network was created in the late 1960s in an effort by the Department of Defense to link multiple command sites to one another, thus ensuring that central command could be carried on remotely, if one or several were disabled or destroyed. Once the hardware was installed, the military allowed educational institutions to take advantage of the research resources inherent in multiple site networking. This interlaced network of computer connections spread quickly, and in the early 1980's, the network was divided into MILNET, for strictly military uses, and ARPANET, which, with the advent of

Essays --

A. A party system is the concept that political parties in a democratic country have basic similarities: they control the government, have a stable base of mass popular support, and create internal mechanisms for controlling funding, information and nominations. From 1789 to the 1890’s, the United States had three party systems. The First Party System consisted of Federalists versus Republican-Democrats (Republicans) from 1789 to 1816. This system can be considered to have developed as a result of the factions in the George Washington administration. The two factions were Alexander Hamilton and John Adams with Federalists and Thomas Jefferson and James Madison with the Republican Party. The Federalists argued for a strong national government, to push for aggressive economic development with a greater emphasis on farmers and states’ rights. They preferred to practice loose constructionism (loose interpretations of the Constitution) to argue that government power should be used to promote economic development through the creation of a national bank, federally financed roads, harbors, and bridges. Federalists believed that America’s economic future depended on the cultivation of strong commercial ties with Great Britain. The Republicans on the other hand wanted a small and weak national government to leave the citizens mostly free of taxation and government interference. Unlike the Federalists, the Republicans supported a philosophy of strict constructionism (strict interpretation of the Constitution) in order to avoid the economy benefitting only a few wealthy northeasterners. They also believed that agriculture, instead of manufacturing, should remain the country’s economic base and so they opposed closer relationships with Great B... ...e intent on preserving the interests of the common man. To do so, they favored the smaller national government and opposed, in particular, any Whig proposal that seemed to threaten their economic, social, or cultural freedoms. This period lasted until 1860. Lastly is the Third Party System from 1854 to the 1890’s consisting of the GOP and the Democrats. Beginning around the time of the start of the Civil War, this system was defined by bitter conflict and striking party differences and coalitions. These coalitions were most evidently defined by geography. The South was dominated by the Democrats who opposed the ending of slavery, and the North, with the exception of some major political machines, was dominated by the Republicans, who supported ending slavery. This era was a time of extreme industrial and economic expansion. The Third Party System lasted until 1896.

Absorption and Variable Costing

CHAPTER 8 ABSORPTION AND VARIABLE COSTING Learning Objectives 1. Explain the accounting treatment of fixed manufacturing overhead under absorption and variable costing. 2. Prepare an income statement under absorption costing. 3. Prepare an income statement under variable costing. 4. Reconcile reported income under absorption and variable costing. 5. Explain the implications of absorption and variable costing for cost-volume-profit analysis. 6. Evaluate absorption and variable costing. 7. Explain the rationale behind throughput costing. . Prepare an income statement under throughput costing. Chapter Overview I. Product Cost and Fixed Manufacturing Overhead A. Absorption-costing income statements B. Variable-costing income statements II. Reconciliation of Absorption- and Variable-Costing Income A. No change in inventory levels B. Increase in inventory levels C. Decrease in inventory levels III. Overall Evaluation of Absorption and Variable Costing IV. Throughput Costing Key Lecture Concepts 1. PRODUCT COST AND FIXED MANUFACTURING OVERHEAD Product, or manufacturing, costs are comprised of direct materials, direct labor, variable manufacturing overhead, and fixed manufacturing overhead. The basic difference between absorption and variable costing is the treatment of fixed manufacturing overhead. * With absorption (full) costing, all costs related to the manufacture of a good are product costs. Therefore, fixed manufacturing overhead attaches to the units being made and is carried in inventory until the product is sold. * Absorption costing results in the preparation of a traditional income statement. Absorption costing is considered GAAP and is acceptable for tax reporting. * Under variable costing, product cost is comprised solely of variable manufacturing costs. Fixed manufacturing overhead is viewed as a cost of being ready to produce, not an actual production cost (i. e. , the cost will remain constant no matter how many units are manufactured). * Fixed manufacturing overhead is treated as a period cost and expensed immediately. * The income statement highlights cost behavior and is presented in a contribution margin format. Variable costing is useful to managers, as it dovetails nicely with cost-volume-profit analysis. 2. RECONCILIATION OF ABSORPTION- AND VARIABLE-COSTING INCOME * The difference between the two approaches is the timing of when fixed manufacturing overhead is shown on the income statement: when the product is sold under absorption costing and when incurred under variable costing. * The two methods will usually produce different income figures. * No change in inventory: production = sales * Under variable costing, all fixed manufacturing overhead is expensed.With absorption costing, the period's fixed overhead flows through to cost of goods sold. * Absorption-costing net income equals variable-costing net income. * Increase in inventory: production ; sales * Under variable costing, all fixed manufacturing overhead is expensed. With absorption costing, a portion of the period's fixed overhead flows through to cost of goods sold and a portion remains on the balance sheet in inventory. * Absorption-costing net income is greater than variable-costing net income. * Decrease in inventory: sales > production Under variable costing, all fixed manufact uring overhead is expensed. With absorption costing, as units manufactured in a prior period are sold, an amount greater than the current period's fixed overhead flows through to cost of goods sold. * Absorption-costing net income is less than variable-costing net income. * The difference between absorption- and variable-costing income figures can be reconciled as follows: Income difference = Inventory change in units x Fixed overhead per unit The difference is likely to be very small over a lengthy time period.3. OVERALL EVALUATION OF ABSORPTION AND VARIABLE COSTING* Pricing decisions * Absorption-cost proponents argue that fixed manufacturing overhead is a necessary production cost. Excluding this element from the inventoried cost of a product will understate the good's cost, which is troublesome for companies that use cost-based pricing techniques. * Variable-cost proponents argue that variable cost is better for pricing decisions. Any price above a good's variable cost results i n a positive contribution margin for the company. Many firms use variable costing for internal-reporting purposes. Given that absorption costing must be employed for external financial reporting, companies can use both methods by making several simple end-of-period adjustments. 1 If a company operates in a just-in-time environment, inventories are kept very low and there will be little change in inventory from period to period. Thus, the income differences between absorption and variable costing will normally be insignificant.4. THROUGHPUT COSTING Throughput costing assigns only the unit-level spending for direct costs as the cost of products or services. * A unit-level cost is incurred every time that a unit of product is manufactured. * All costs other than the throughput cost are considered to be operating expenses of the period. * Proponents of throughput costing argue that this procedure eliminates the incentive to produce excess inventory because all non-throughput costs are e xpensed regardless of manufacturing volume.

Review of related literature about jollibee Essay

INTRODUCTION BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY The original owner Tony Tan and his family opened a Magnolia Ice Cream parlor in Cubao, Quezon city in 1975.In 1978, he and his siblings engaged the services of a management consultant, Manuel C. Lumba, who shifted the business focus from ice cream to hot dogs after his studies showed a much larger market waiting to be served. Lumba was Tan’s last business and management mentor. Throughout its three decade history, Jollibee became a success enjoying rapid growth. The chain opened successful milestone stores in the following years: Its 100th branch in Davao on 1991;   The same month, Jollibee signed a deal to acquire 55 percent of China’s Guangxi San Ping Wang Food and Beverage Management Co. Ltd., operators of the San Pin Wang beef noodle business for 30 million RMB. On October 2011, Jollibee acquired a 54% stake in BK Titans, Inc., the sole franchisee of Burger King in the Philippines. In 2011, Jollibee opened 260 new stores, of which 167 were in the Philippines led by Mang Inasal (86) and Jollibee (40). This brought the company’s total number of stores to 2,001 as of end December 2011. The same year, Jollibee closed Manong Pepe foodchain in favor of Mang Inasal, and sold Dà ©lifrance to Cafà ©France. Overseas, Jollibee opened 93 stores, led by Yonghe King in China (70) and Jollibee Vietnam (11). In 2013, Jollibee opened its first store in Virginia Beach, Virginia as well as in Houston, Texas. The restaurant plans to expand to Toronto in Canada, Malaysia and Indonesia. They also plan to expand throughout the Southern United States such as Atlanta, HYPERLINK â€Å"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlotte† o â€Å"Charlotte† Charlotte,Dallas and Chicago. Currently, aside from its flagship brand Jollibee, the group’s other brands are Chowking, Greenwich, Red Ribbon, Mang Inasal, Burger King, Yonghe King (China) and Hong Zhuang Yuan (China). Jollibee is an American-style fast food restaurant with Filipino-influenced  dishes specializing in burgers, spaghetti, chicken and some local Filipino dishes. In the Philippines, Jollibee serves Coca-Cola products for its beverages; in overseas markets, the chain serves Pepsi products. Jollibee started with five branches in 1978 and has grown to a strong network of a total of 801 stores in the country, and 96 stores internationally. In total, Jollibee has 896 stores worldwide as of November 2013. It is the largest fast food chain in the country with international locations in Brunei, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Kuwait, Malaysia, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Vietnam, the United States, and Canada. JFC is planning to expand Jollibee to other markets like Europe. Jollibee Chicken Joy Potential (Total Market) in last 25 years, Chicken Joy has evolved from just plain chicken product to a strong and well-loved brand in the QSR (quick service restaurant) industry. It reached the level of having an established emotional affinity among Filipinos given its constancy as a functional product and the heritage that it continuously imparts in every household. Primary Target Moms and dads with kids (0-12 years old), across socio-eco classes, chicken eaters positioning a uniquely delicious total sensory experience enjoyed by the whole family: Crispylicious, juicylicious, amoy delicious, and gravylicious, satisfies not only your family’s craving for a delicious chicken meal but also your family’s needs for bonding moments. Also, Jollibee, the country’s leading fast-food chain, was cited as one of the top 10 international fast-food restaurants in the United States. US-based food and drink website The Daily Meal listed Jollibee as among the favorite foreign food chains in the country. The website described Jollibee as â€Å"hugely popular in the Philippines, and has locations scattered around the US, largely in California. Aside from burgers, they offer fried chicken, spaghetti, noodles, and unique breakfast dishes like Spam, beef tenders, or sweet pork with rice.† The Daily Meal draws over eight million unique visitors per month and ranks as one of the fastest-growing content sites of all time. The food and drink website also produces annual reports, including the 50 Most Powerful People in Food, 101 Best Restaurants in America and 150 Best Bars in America.